Important questions of chapter-End of bipolarity (Class 12)

CHAPTER-2 BOOK 1

THE END OF BIPOLARITY

Why is it said that the collapse of Berlin Wall signified the collapse of the bi-polar world?

The Berlin Wall, which had been built at the height of the Cold War and was its greatest symbol, was toppled by the people in 1989.

 This dramatic event was followed by an equally dramatic and historic chain of events that led to the collapse of the ‘Second World’ and the end of the Cold War.

Very soon the control of Soviet Union ended in East Germany. Germany was reunited and the complete Germany joins western power block and European Union. 

Russia did not remain a super power and in this way the Berlin was symbolized in the end of the bi-polar world.

Mention the name of the Eastern alliance led by the Soviet Union.

      The Warsaw Pact was the name of the Eastern alliance led by the Soviet Union. It was the group of supporters of Communism and socialism.

Mention the features that distinguish the Soviet economy from that of a capitalist country like the US.

The features that can be distinguished the Soviet economy from that of a capitalist country like the US can be summed up as follows:

1. Soviet economy experienced a complex communication network, vast energy resources including oil, iron and steel, machinery production, and a transport sector that connected its remotest areas with efficiency.

2. Soviet Union had a domestic consumer industry that produced everything from pin to cars, though their quality did not match with that of the Western capitalist countries.

3. Soviet Union ensured a minimum standard of living for all its citizens, and government subsidized basic necessities including health, education, children and other welfare schemes.

4. There was an absence of unemployment in Soviet Union.

5. State ownership was the dominant form of ownership: land and productive assets were owned by the Soviet state.

Discuss the drawbacks of the Soviet system.

The Soviet system became very bureaucratic and authorization, making life very difficult for its citizens.

1. Lack of democracy and absence of freedom of speech stifled people. The one- party system represented by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had tight control over all institutions and was unaccountable to the people.

2. The party refused to recognize the urge of people in the fifteen different republics that formed the Soviet Union to manage their own affairs even cultural affairs.

 Although on paper the main constituent republic forming USSR i.e. Russia dominated everything and people from other regions felt neglected and often suppressed.

What were the factors that forced Gorbachev to initiate the reforms in the USSR?

Mikhail Gorbachev who had become General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. He was forced to initiate the reforms in the USSR due to the following reasons:

1. Reforms were necessary to keep the USSR abreast of the information and technological revolutions taking place in the West.

2. Gorbachev's decision to normalise relations with the West and democratise and reform the Soviet Union had some other effects that neither he nor anyone else intended or anticipated.

3. To loosen the administrative system this exempted ordinary people from the privileges.

4. Gorbachev initiated the policies of economic and political reform and democratisation within the country. The reforms were opposed by leaders within the Communist Party.

How Gorbachev did improve the economy of USSR?

    Gorbachev decided to introduced the following-

1. He allowed small scale enterprises to private competition, introduced quality controls in the production process and automation and computerization was allowed to introduce efficiency.

2. The party’s firm grip over every aspect of the economy was loosened and autonomous institutions run along professional lines were given the job of maintaining standards.

3. The role of state planners was terminated and owners of enterprises were encouraged to keep in touch with market realities and respond according to consumer’s demands.

In which region was the nationalist dissatisfaction with the Soviet Union strongest and why?

Ironically, during the Cold War, many thought that nationalist unrest would be strongest in the Central Asian republics.

 Nationalist dissatisfaction with the Soviet Union was strongest in the more ‘Europeanised’ and prosperous part- in Russia and the Baltic areas as well as Ukraine and Georgia. 

The reason was that the ordinary people here felt alienated from the Central Asians and from each and concluded also that they were paying too high an economic price to keep the more backward areas within the Soviet Union.

What was Shock Therapy? Was this the best way to make a transition from communism to capitalism?

The model of transition in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe that was influenced by the World Bank and the IMF came to be known as ‘shock therapy’. This was a painful process of transition from an authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system.

 Shock therapy varied in intensity and speed amongst the former second world countries, but its direction and features were quite similar. This was not the best way to make a transition from communism to capitalism due to the following consequences:

1. Russia, the large state-controlled industrial complex almost collapsed, as about 90% of its industries were put up for sale to private individuals and companies. Since the restructuring was carried out through market forces and not by Government directed industrial policies, it led to the virtual disappearance of entire industries. This was called ‘the largest garage sale in history’, as valuable industries were undervalued and sold at throwaway prices.

2. Though all citizens were given vouchers to participate in the sales, most citizens sold their vouchers in the black market because they needed the money.

3. The value of the rubble, the Russian currency, declined dramatically. The rate of inflation was so high that people lost all their savings. The collective farm system disintegrated leaving people without food security, and Russia started to import food. The real GDP of Russia in 1999 was below what it was in 1989.

4. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of government subsidies pushed large sections of the people into poverty. The middle classes were pushed to the periphery of society, and the academic and intellectual manpower disintegrated or migrated.

5. A mafia emerged in most of these countries and started controlling many economic activities. Privatisation led to new disparities. Post-Soviet states, especially Russia, were divided between rich and poor regions. Unlike the earlier system, there was now great economic inequality between people.

6. The construction of democratic institutions was not given the same attention and priority as the demands of economic transformation. Dissent or opposition wasn't allowed.

Describe any four consequences of the disintegration of Soviet Union.

      The consequences of the disintegration of Soviet Union were: 

1. The disintegration of the Soviet Union meant the end of the Cold War because the Cold War was the culmination of the rivalries between the USA and the USSR. Thus, Cold War confrontations were put to an end.

2. The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to a dramatic change and upheaval in the power relations which had implications for world politics. The disintegration left open the world space to be dominated by the sole superpower called the USA or to have the dominance of several powers. The world witnessed a transition from the bio-polar world to a Uni-polar world.

3. The Breton Woods institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund became active players in the wake of developmental needs of the second world countries as they were borrowing money from the World Bank and IMF. It helped to raise the importance of these institutions as the newly formed countries were depended on these institutions for their development.

4. The world saw the emergence of many new countries with their own independent aspirations. It also witnessed secessionist movements in many countries. Chechnya and Dagestan are two examples of these movements. 

5. The Baltic States namely Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia joined the European Union and subsequently became members of the NATO. This opened up the way of progression of Capitalism around the globe.

Undoubtedly the significant consequence of the withering away of the USSR was the inauguration of the period of US hegemony in which capitalism was pronounced as the winner because socialism had been dead.

List any two consequences of ‘Shock Therapy’.

1. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of government subsidies pushed large sections of people into poverty. The middle classes comprises academic and intellectual manpower was either disintegrated or migrated.

2. Privatization led to new disparities. Post soviet states, especially Russia, were divided between rich and poor regions. Economic inequality between people could be witnessed more than it was during the regime of Soviet Union.

Highlight features of the old system of social welfare that got destroyed due to shock therapy?

     Features of the old system of social welfare that got destroyed due to shock therapy were as:

    1. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed.

    2. Withdrawal of government subsidies led to poverty.

    3. Privatisation led to new disparities.

Discuss the economic relationship between India and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era.

The economic relationship between India and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era were:

1. Technical assistance for steel plants and machinery plants was given by USSR.

2. Indian currency (Rupee) was accepted for bilateral trade.

Which two republics of the USSR have had violent secessionist movements at the time of its disintegration?

The Chechnya Republic and the Dagestan Republic were the two republics of the United States of Soviet Russia which have violent secessionist movements at the time of its disintegration.

What were the major consequences of the disintegration of the Soviet Union for countries like India?

There were three broad kinds of enduring changes that resulted from the disintegration of the Soviet Unions. Each of these had numerous consequences for countries like India such as:

1. First of all, it meant the end of Cold War confrontations. The ideological dispute over whether the socialist system would beat the capitalist system was not an issue anymore. The end of the confrontation demanded an end to this arms race and possible new peace.

2. Second, power relations in world politics changed and, therefore, the relative influence of ideas and institutions also changed. As it turned out, the US became the sole superpower. Backed by the power and prestige of the US, the capitalist economy was now the dominant economic system internationally.

Politically, the notion of liberal democracy emerged as the best way to organise political life.

3. The end of the Soviet bloc meant the emergence of many new countries. All these countries had their own independent aspirations and choices. Some of them, especially the Baltic and East European states, wanted to join the European Union and become part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).

The Central Asian countries wanted to take advantage of their geographical location and continue their close ties with Russia and also to establish ties with the West, the US, China and others.

Thus, the international system saw many new players emerge, each with its own identity, interests, and economic and political difficulties. It is to these issues that we now turn.

Highlights the main political developments in Czechoslovakia of Eastern Europe.

 In Czechoslovakia as in other post-communist states in Central and Eastern Europe, the end of communist rule in late 1989 was followed by a popularisation of politics.

1. The liberal political and social reforms brought by Alexander Dubcek in Czechoslovakia were understood by USSR as a violation of rules of Union.

2. Russians therefore, sent troops in August 1968, to smoother these progressive tendencies.

Dubcek had to bow out and was replaced by another hardliner communist, Gustav Husak. Velvet Revolution was conducted by Charter 77 in 1977 and the famous playwright, Vaclav Havel became the President of the country in December 1989.

3. Another important change came about with the division of the country and the emergence of two states. As the breakup of the federation at the end of 1992 illustrates, Czechoslovakia’s newly re-created democratic political system proved unable to survive the continued conflict between Czechs and Slovaks that dominated public life during the first two years of the post-communist era.

Describe the relation between India and Russia.

India has maintained strong relations with Russia. In fact India’s relations with Russia are an important aspect of India’s foreign policy. Indo-Russian relations are embedded in a history of trust and common interests and are matched by popular perceptions.

1. Russian and India share a vision of a multipolar world order. More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed between India and Russia as part of the Indo-Russian strategic Agreement of 2001.

 India stands to benefit from its relationships with Russia and Kashmir issue, energy supplies, sharing information on international terrorism, access to Central Asia, and balancing its relations with China.

2. Russia stands to benefit from this relationship because India is the second largest arms market for Russia. The Indian military gets most of its hardware from Russia. 

Russia has repeatedly come to the assistance of India during its oil crises. India is seeking to increase its energy imports from Russia and the republics of Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan.

3. Co-operation with these republics includes partnership and investment in oilfields. Russia is important for India’s nuclear energy plans and assisted India’s space industry by giving, for example, the cryogenic rocket when India needed it. Russia and India have collaborated on various scientific projects.

Read the paragraph carefully and give answer these questions.

The value of the Rubble declined dramatically. The rate of inflation was so high that people lost all their savings. The collective farm system disintegrated leaving people without food security, and the government started to import food. The old trading structure broke down with no alternative in its place. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of government subsidies pushed large sections of the people into poverty.

1. What is meant by subsidy?

The subsidy is a sum of money granted by the state or a public body to help an industry or business keep the price of a commodity or service low so that affordability of the item could be maintained in the market.

2. How did the disintegration of the collective farm system lead to the loss of food security?

The disintegration of collective farm system led to capitalism in agriculture which left people without food security because state-sponsored subsidies were abolished, food grains etc to poor were put to an end under the capitalist system. It resulted in a lack of food availability.

3. This passage is associated to which country? Why did the government start importing food?

The given passage is associated with the United States of Soviet Russia. The government started importing food to meet the shortage of food in the country.

Write a short note on “ARAB SPRING”.

The 21st century witnessed emergence of new developments for democracies and democratization in West Asian countries, one such event is characterized as Arab Spring that began in 2009.

 Located in Tunisia, the Arab Spring took its roots where the struggle against corruption, unemployment and poverty was started by the public which turned into a political movement because the people considered the existing problems as outcome of autocratic dictatorship. 

The Arab Spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings that enveloped several largely Muslim countries, including Tunisia, Morocco, Syria, Libya, Egypt and Bahrain. 

The events in these nations generally began in the spring of 2011, which led to the name. 

However, the political and social impact of these popular uprisings remains significant today, years after many of them ended.

 Why the Name ‘Arab Spring’?

The name "Arab Spring” is a reference to the Revolutions of 1848—also known as the “People’s spring”—when political upheavals swept Europe. 

Ever since, “spring” has been used to describe movements toward democracy like Czechoslovakia’s 1968 “Prague Spring.” Western media began popularizing the term “Arab Spring” in 2011.

What was the aftermath of Arab Spring?

Most notably, in Egypt, where early changes arising from the Arab Spring gave many hope after the ouster of President Hosni Mubarak, authoritarian rule has apparently returned.

 Following the controversial election of Mohamed Morsi in 2012, a coup led by defense minister Abdel Fattah el-Sisi installed the latter as president in 2013, and he remains in power today.

Muammar Gaddafi, in Libya, meanwhile, authoritarian dictator Muammar Qaddafi was overthrown in October 2011, during a violent civil war, and he was tortured (literally dragged through the streets) and executed by opposition fighters. Video footage of his death was seen by millions online.

However, since Qaddafi’s downfall, Libya has remained in a state of civil war, and two opposing governments effectively rule separate regions of the country.

Similarly, the civil war in Syria that began in the aftermath of the Arab Spring lasted for several years, forcing many to leave the country to seek refuge in Turkey, Greece and throughout Western Europe.

 For a time, the militant group ISIS had declared a caliphate—a nation governed by Islamic law—in northeastern Syria. The group executed thousands of people, and many others fled the region in fear of their lives.

Yet, although ISIS has largely been defeated in Syria, the oppressive regime of long-time dictator Bashar al Assad remains in power in the country.

What were the results of the protest by the people?

The demand for democracy that started in Tunisia spread throughout the Muslim-dominated Arab countries in West Asia. 

Hosni Mubarak, who had been in power in Egypt since 1979, also collapsed as a result of the massive democratic protests. 

In addition, the influence of Arab Spring could also be seen in Yemen, Bahrain, Libya and Syria where similar protests by the people led to democratic awakening throughout the region.

What do you mean by Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)?

  It is the free association of sovereign states that was formed in 1991 by Russia and 11 other republics that were formerly part of the Soviet Union.

              Established in 1991. 

            Membership 12 States — Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

What was the background for the establishment of CIS?

1. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was founded in 1991 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Meetings are held periodically on a rotating basis at the CIS countries' capitals. An informal summit was held in Sochi, Russia in July 2001. Forums include the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Prime Ministers, and the Council of Foreign Ministers.

2. Upon its foundation, members adopted the Alma-Ata Declaration, which confirmed the promise of the former republics to cooperate in various fields of external and internal policies, and announced the guarantees for implementation of the international commitments of the former Soviet Union. Georgia joined the Commonwealth in December 1993.

3. The CIS performs its activities on the basis of the Charter, adopted by the Council of Heads of States on 22 January 1993, which stipulates the goals and principles of the Commonwealth, and rights and obligations of the countries. The Charter states that the Commonwealth was formed on the basis of sovereign equality of all its members and that the Member States were independent and equal subjects under international law.

4. The Commonwealth does not have supranational powers. Countries' interaction within the CIS is accomplished through its coordinating institutions: the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Heads of Government, the Councils of Foreign Ministers, etc.

What are the functions of CIS?

The CIS’s functions are to coordinate its members’ policies regarding their economies, foreign relations, defence, immigration policies, environmental protection, and law enforcement.

 Its top governmental body is a council composed of the member republics’ heads of state (i.e., presidents) and of government (prime ministers), who are assisted by committees of republic cabinet ministers in key areas such as economics and defence.

The CIS’s members pledged to keep both their armed forces and the former Soviet nuclear weapons stationed on their territories under a single unified command.

 In practice this proved difficult, however, as did the members’ efforts to coordinate the introduction of market-type mechanisms and private ownership into their respective economies.

Describe the background history of CIS.

1. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was founded in 1991 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Meetings are held periodically on a rotating basis at the CIS countries' capitals. An informal summit was held in Sochi, Russia in July 2001. Forums include the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Prime Ministers, and the Council of Foreign Ministers.

2. Upon its foundation, members adopted the Alma-Ata Declaration, which confirmed the promise of the former republics to cooperate in various fields of external and internal policies, and announced the guarantees for implementation of the international commitments of the former Soviet Union. Georgia joined the Commonwealth in December 1993.

3. The CIS performs its activities on the basis of the Charter, adopted by the Council of Heads of States on 22 January 1993, which stipulates the goals and principles of the Commonwealth, and rights and obligations of the countries.

 The Charter states that the Commonwealth was formed on the basis of sovereign equality of all its members and that the Member States were independent and equal subjects under international law. 

The Charter also states that the CIS serves the development and strengthening of friendship, inter-ethnic accord, trust, mutual understanding, and cooperation between States.

4. The Commonwealth does not have supranational powers. Countries' interaction within the CIS is accomplished through its coordinating institutions: the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Heads of Government, the Councils of Foreign Ministers, Defence Ministers, Border Troops Commanders, the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly, the Executive Committee (the legal successor of the Executive Secretariat), and the Interstate Economic Committee of the Economic Union.

What do you know about GULF WAR?

 With the disintegration of USSR and the end of cold war left open only two possibilities like either the remaining would dominate and create a “unipolar system” bringing in multipolar system where no one power could dominate. 

The US Hegemony was established to show the overwhelming superiority of its military power. Through this the US Hegemony was established and this led to the emergence of “New World Order”.

The process for the establishment of US Hegemony started in August 1990 when Iraq invaded Kuwait. The United Nations tried all diplomatic avenues to convince Iraq to quit it’s aggression but failed. 

Hence UN mandated the liberation of Kuwait by force. 

A massive coalition force of 660,000 troops from 34 countries fought against Iraq and defeated it under UN’s ‘Operation Desert Storm’ but it was led by the US because 75 per cent of the coalition forces were from the US only. This war is popularly known as the First Gulf War establishing the US hegemony.

The use of smart bombs or computer operated bombs in first gulf war showed the huge technological gap between US and other existing powers or countries.

 Due to the use of computer operated bombs this war is also known as “Video Game War” or “Computer War”.

Elaborate Afghanistan War.

International conflict in Afghanistan beginning in 2001 that was triggered by the September 11 attacks and consisted of three phases. 

The first phase—toppling the Taliban (the ultraconservative political and religious faction that ruled Afghanistan and provided sanctuary for al-Qaeda, perpetrators of the September 11 attacks)—was brief, lasting just two months.

 The second phase, from 2002 until 2008, was marked by a U.S. strategy of defeating the Taliban militarily and rebuilding core institutions of the Afghan state. 

The third phase, a turn to classic counter insurgency doctrine, began in 2008 and accelerated with U.S. PRESEIDENT Barrack Obama’s 2009 decision to temporarily increase the U.S. troop presence in Afghanistan. The larger force was used to implement a strategy of protecting the population from Taliban attacks and supporting efforts to reintegrate insurgents into Afghan society. 

The strategy came coupled with a timetable for the withdrawal of the foreign forces from Afghanistan; beginning in 2011, security responsibilities would be gradually handed over to the Afghan military and police. The new approach largely failed to achieve its aims.

 Insurgent attacks and civilian casualties remained stubbornly high, while many of the Afghan military and police units taking over security duties appeared to be ill-prepared to hold off the Taliban. 

By the time the U.S. and NATO combat mission formally ended in December 2014, the 13-year Afghanistan War had become the longest war ever fought by the United States.