Our constitution has granted right to equality under Article 14. but with this it has also given special provisions- like the backward community of society needs to be given reservations so that they can enjoy the right to equality.
For example: if everybody has been given the equal right to compete in exams, and all sections of community share the fruits of education. but backward communities were excluded in the past. So post independence, India came out with reservations to bring them on an equal platform.
WHY DOES EQUALITY MATTERS?
1. Equality is a powerful moral and political ideal that has inspired and guided human society for many centuries.
2. It is implicit in all faiths and religions which proclaim all human beings to be the creation of God.
3. As a political ideal the concept of equality invokes the idea that all human beings have an equal worth regardless of their colour, gender, race, or nationality. It maintains that human beings deserve equal consideration and respect because of their common humanity.
In the eighteenth century, the French revolutionaries used the slogan ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’ to revolt against the landed feudal aristocracy and the monarchy
The demand for equality was also raised during anti-colonial liberation struggles in Asia and Africa during the twentieth century.
It continues to be raised by struggling groups such as women or dalits who feel marginalised in our society. Today, equality is a widely accepted ideal which is embodied in the constitutions and laws of many countries.
Yet, it is inequality rather than equality which is most visible around us in the world as well as within our own society.
FACT SHEET ON GLOBAL INEQUALITIES
- The richest 50 individuals in the world have a combined income greater than that of the poorest 40 crore people.
- The poorest 40 per cent of the world’s population receive only 5 per cent of global income, while the richest 10 per cent of the world’s population controls 54 per cent of global income.
- The first world of the advanced industrial countries, mainly North America and Western Europe, with 25 per cent of the world population, owns 86 per cent of the world’s industry, and consumes 80 per cent of the world energy.
- On a per capita basis, a resident of the advanced industrial countries consumes at least three times as much water, ten times as much energy, thirteen times as much iron and steel and fourteen times as much paper as someone living in a developing country like India or China
- The risk of dying from pregnancy related causes is 1 to 18 in Nigeria but 1 to 8700 in Canada.
- The industrial countries of the first world account for nearly two-thirds of the global emissions of carbon dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels. They also account for three-quarters of emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxide that cause acid rain.
- Many industries known for their high rate of pollution are being shifted from the developed countries to the less developed countries
PARADOX RELATED TO EQUALITY IN SOCIETY
Almost everyone accepts the ideal of equality, yet almost everywhere we encounter inequality.
We live in a complex world of unequal wealth, opportunities, work situations, and power
It is a question of this kind that make equality one of the central theme of social and political theory.
What is equality?
Equality is about ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity to make the most of their lives and talents.
It is also the belief that no one should have poorer life chances because of the way they were born, where they come from, what they believe, or whether they have a disability.
Equality recognises that historically certain groups of people with protected characteristics such as race, disability, sex and sexual orientation have experienced discrimination.
The commitment to the ideal of equality does not imply the elimination of all forms of differences.
It merely suggests that the treatment we receive and the opportunities we enjoy must not be pre-determined by birth or social circumstance.
For instance, if a child born in a slum is denied nutritious food or good education through no fault of his/her own, it may appear unfair to us.
EQUALITY OF OPPURTUNITIES
The concept of equality implies that all people, as human beings, are entitled to the same rights and opportunities to develop their skills and talents, and to pursue their goals and ambitions.
This means that in a society people may differ with regard to their choices and preferences.
They may also have different talents and skills which results in some being more successful in their chosen careers than others.
But just because only some become ace cricketers or successful lawyers, it does not follow that the society should be considered unequal.
TYPES OF INEQUALITY
NATURAL-
Natural inequalities are those that emerge between people as a result of their different capabilities and talents
Natural inequalities are considered to be the result of the different characteristics and abilities with which people are born
These kinds of inequalities are different from socially-produced inequalities which emerge as a consequence of inequalities of opportunity or the exploitation of some groups in a society by others.
SOCIAL
Social inequalities on the other hand are those created by society.
Certain societies may, for instance, value those who perform intellectual work over those who do manual work and reward them differently.
They may treat differently people of different race, or colour, or gender, or caste. Differences of this kind reflect the values of a society and some of these may certainly appear to us to be unjust
EXAMPLES OF INEQUALITIES-
Examples of inequalities that were proposed to be natural but now seems unfair
Socially produced inequality- Certain societies may, for instance, value those who perform intellectual work over those who do manual work and reward them differently
Thought to be natural inequality -Black people in Africa were considered by their colonial masters to be of lesser intelligence, child-like, and better at manual work, sports and music. This belief was used to justify institutions like slaver This belief is to justify the institution of slavery
Thought to be natural equality- women were for long described as ‘the weaker sex’, considered timid and of lesser intelligence than men, needing special protection.
Socially produced-denying women equal rights could be justified. These complexities make it difficult to use this distinction as a standard by which laws/policies of a society can be assessed
Another problem which arises with the idea of natural differences is that some differences which could be considered natural need no longer be seen as unalterable.
For instance, advances in medical science and technologies have helped many disabled people to function effectively in society.
Today, computers can help blind people, wheel chairs and artificial limbs can help in cases of physical disability, even a person’s looks can be changed with cosmetic surgery.
The famous physicist Stephen Hawking can hardly move or speak but he has made major contributions to science. It would seem unjust to most people today if disabled people are denied necessary help to overcome the effects of their disability or a fair reward for their work on the grounds that they are naturally less capable.
THREE DIMENSIONS OF EQUALITY-
POLITICAL
SOCIAL
ECONOMIC.
POLITICAL EQAULITY
These are rights which are considered necessary to enable citizens to develop themselves and participate in the affairs of the state.
We know that considerable inequality can exist even in countries which grant equal rights to all citizens. These inequalities are often the result of differences in the resources and opportunities which are available to citizens in the social and economic spheres.
For this reason a demand is often made for equal opportunities, or for ‘a level playing field’.
SOCIAL EQUALITY
Political equality or equality before the law is an important first step in the pursuit of equality but it often needs to be supplemented by equality of opportunities.
While the former is necessary to remove any legal hurdles which might exclude people from a voice in government and deny them access to available social goods, the pursuit of equality requires that people belonging to different groups and communities also have a fair and equal chance to compete for those goods and opportunities.
For this, it is necessary to minimize the effects of social and economic inequalities and guarantee certain minimum conditions of life to all the members of the society — adequate health care, the opportunity for good education, adequate nourishment and a minimum wage, among other things
Where equality of opportunity does not exist a huge pool of potential talent tends to be wasted in society.
In India, a special problem regarding equal opportunities comes not just from lack of facilities but from some of the customs which may prevail in different parts of country, or among different groups. Women, for instance, may not enjoy equal rights of inheritance in some groups, or there may be social prohibitions regarding their taking part in certain kinds of activities, or they may even be discouraged from obtaining higher education.
The state should make policies to prevent discrimination or harassment of women in public places or employment, to provide incentives to open up education or certain professions to women, and other such measures.
ECONOMIC EQUALITY
In simple terms, economic equality is about a level playing field where everyone has the same access to the same wealth.
At the simplest level, we would say that economic inequality exists in a society if there are significant differences in wealth, property or income between individuals or classes.
HOW DO WE MEASURE INEQUALITY?
At the simplest level, we would say that economic inequality exists in a society if there are significant differences in wealth, property or income between individuals or classes
Another way could be to estimate the number of people who live below the poverty line
Absolute equality of wealth or income has probably never existed in a society.
Most democracies today try to make equal opportunities available to people in the belief that this would at least give those who have talent and determination the chance to improve their condition.
With equal opportunities, inequalities may continue to exist between individuals but there is the possibility of improving one’s position in society with sufficient effort.
FEMINISM
Feminism is a political doctrine of equal rights for women and men.
Feminists are those men and women who believe that many of the inequalities we see in society between men and women are neither natural nor necessary and can be altered so that both women and men can lead free and equal lives.
According to feminists, inequality between men and women in society is the result of patriarchy.
This term refers to a social, economic and cultural system that values men more than women and gives men power over women.
Patriarchy is based on the assumption that men and women are different by nature and that this difference justifies their unequal positions in society.
Feminists questions this way of thinking by making a distinction between “sex” i.e. biological difference between men and women, and “gender” which determines the different roles that men and women play in society.
For instance, the biological fact that only women can become pregnant and bear children does not require that only women should look after children after they are born. Feminists show us that much of the inequality between men and women is produced by society and not by nature.
Patriarchy produces a division of labour by which women are supposed to be responsible for “private” and “domestic” matters while men are responsible for work in the “public” domain.
Feminists question this distinction by pointing out that in fact most women are also active in the “public” domain. Despite this “double burden” as feminists term it, women are given little or no say in decisions taken in the public domain.
MARXISM VS LIBERALISM
Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx, which examines the effect of capitalism on labour, productivity, and economic development and argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favour of communism.
He pointed out that such private ownership did not only make the class of owners wealthy, it also gave them political power
Such power enables them to influence state policies and laws and this could prove a threat to democratic government
Marxists and socialists feel that economic inequality provides support to other forms of social inequality such as differences of rank or privilege.
Therefore, to tackle inequality in society we need to go beyond providing equal opportunities and try and ensure public control over essential resources and forms of property.
Liberals uphold the principle of competition as the most efficient and fair way of distributing resources and rewards in society.
They believe that while states may have to intervene to try and ensure a minimum standard of living and equal opportunities for all, this cannot by itself bring equality and justice to society
Competition between people in free and fair conditions is the most just and efficient way of distributing rewards in a society.
As long as competition is open and free, inequalities are unlikely to become entrenched and people will get due reward for their talents and efforts.
For liberals the principle of competition is the most just and efficient way of selecting candidates for jobs or admission to educational institutions.
For instance, in our country many students hope for admission to professional courses and entry is highly competitive
From time to time, the government and the courts have stepped in to regulate educational institutions and the entrance tests to ensure that everybody gets a fair and equal chance to compete. Some may still not get admission but it is considered to be a fair way of distributing limited seats.
Unlike socialists, liberals do not believe that political, economic and social inequalities are necessarily linked. They maintain that inequalities in each of these spheres should be tackled appropriately.
The problem for liberals is not inequality as such, but unjust and entrenched inequalities which prevent individuals from developing their capabilities.
SOCIALISM
Socialism refers to a set of political ideas that emerged as a response to the inequalities present in, and reproduced by, the industrial capitalist economy.
The main concern of Socialism is how to minimise existing inequality and distribute resources justly. They favour some kind of government regulation, planning and control over certain key areas such as education and health care.
In India the eminent socialist thinker Rammanohar Lohia, identified five kinds of inequalities that need to be fought.
Lohia argued that each of these inequalities had independent roots and had to be fought separately and simultaneously.
He did not speak of revolution in the singular. For him struggle against these five inequalities constituted five revolutions.
Inequality between man and woman
Inequality based on skin colour
Caste-based inequality
Colonial rule of some countries over others
Economic inequality
Revolution for civil liberties against unjust encroachments on private life
Revolution for non-violence, for renunciation of weapons in favour of Satyagraha
These were the seven revolutions or Sapta Kranti which for Lohia was the ideal of socialism.
HOW CAN EQULAITY BE PROMOTED?
Establishing formal equality
The first step towards bringing about equality is, of course, ending the formal system of inequality and privileges.
Social, economic and political inequalities all over the world have been protected by customs and legal systems that prohibited some sections of society from enjoying certain kinds of opportunities and rewards.
Poor people were not granted the right to vote in a large number of countries. Women were not allowed to take up many professions and activities. The caste system in India prevented people from the ‘lower’ castes from doing anything except manual labour
Attainment of equality requires that all such restrictions or privileges should be brought to an end.
Since many of these systems have the sanction of law, equality requires that the government and the law of the land should stop protecting these systems of inequality.
The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Our Constitution also abolishes the practice of untouchability.
Most modern constitutions and democratic governments have formally accepted the principle of equality and incorporated it as identical treatment by law to all citizens without any regard to their caste, race, religion or gender.
Equality through differential treatment
Formal equality or equality before law is necessary but not sufficient to realise the principle of equality.
Sometimes it is necessary to treat people differently in order to ensure that they can enjoy equal rights.
Certain differences between people may have to be taken into account for this purpose. For instance, disabled people may justifiably demand special ramps in public spaces so that they get an equal chance to enter public buildings.
Or women working in call centres at night may need special protection during the journey to and from the centre so that their equal right to work may be protected. These should not be seen as infringements of equality but as enhancement of equality.
Some countries have used policies of affirmative action to enhance equality of opportunity. In our country we have relied on the policy of reservations
Affirmative action
Affirmative action is based on the idea that it is not sufficient to establish formal equality by law.
When we wish to eliminate inequalities that are deeply rooted, it is necessary to take some more positive measures to minimise and eliminate entrenched forms of social inequalities. Most policies of affirmative action are thus designed to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.
Affirmative action can however take many forms-
1. preferential spending on facilities for disadvantaged communities
2. scholarships and hostels
3. to special consideration for admissions to educational institutions and jobs.
In our country we have adopted a policy of quotas or reserved seats in education and jobs to provide equality of opportunity to deprived groups, and this has been the subject of considerable debate and disagreement.
The policy has been defended on the ground that certain groups have been victims of social prejudice and discrimination in the form of exclusion and segregation. These communities who have suffered in the past and been denied equal opportunities cannot be immediately expected to compete with others on equal terms.
Therefore, in the interest of creating an egalitarian and just society they need to be given special protection and help.
Although policies of affirmative action are supported for making the society more equal, many theorists argue against them. They question whether treating people differently can ever lead to greater equality.
Critics of positive discrimination, particularly policies of reservations, thus invoke the principle of equality to argue against such policies.
They contend that any provision of reservations or quotas for the deprived in admissions for higher education or jobs is unfair as it arbitrarily denies other sections of society their right to equal treatment.
They maintain that reservations are a form of reverse discrimination and they continue with the practices that the principle of equality questions and rejects.
Equality requires that all persons be treated alike, and when we make distinctions between individuals on the basis of their caste or colour, we are likely to reinforce caste and racial prejudices. For these theorists, the important thing is to do away with social distinctions that divide our society.
Consider the following situations. Is special and differential treatment justified in any of the following?
Working women should receive maternity leave.
A school should spend money to buy special equipment for two visually challenged students.
Geeta plays brilliant basketball, so the school should build a basketball court for her so that she can develop her skills further.
Jeet’s parents want him to wear a turban in school, and Irfan’s parents want him to pray on Friday afternoon, so the school should not insist that Jeet should wear a helmet while playing cricket, and Irfan’s teacher should not ask him to stay back for extra classes on Friday.
Many of these issues relating to the pursuit of equality have been raised by the women’s movement.
In the nineteenth century women struggled for equal rights. They demanded, for instance, the right to vote, the right to receive degrees in colleges and universities and the right to work — that is, the same rights as the men in their society
However, as they entered the job market they realised that women required special facilities in order to exercise these rights. For instance, they required some provision for maternity leave and crèches in the workplace.
Without special considerations of this kind, they could not seriously compete for jobs or enjoy a successful professional and personal life. They needed, in other words, sometimes to be treated differently if they are to enjoy the same rights as men.
As we deliberate on issues of equality and examine whether different treatment is warranted in a particular case, we need continuously to ask ourselves whether differential treatment is essential to ensure that a set of people can enjoy the same rights as the rest of society.
Caution must, however, be exercised to see that differential treatment does not yield new structures of dominance and oppression, or become a means for some dominant groups to reassert special privileges and power in society.
Differential treatment is intended and justified only as a means to promoting a just and egalitarian society.
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